Investigation into the Prevalence of Cryptosporidium Infection in Calves among Small-Holder Dairy and Traditional Herds in Tanzania

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine prevalence and risk factors of cryptosporidiosis in bovine from two contrasting production system in and around Tanga municipality between May 2003 and January 2004. The study populations comprised 117 calves aged ≤3 months, randomly selected from 44 smallholders dairy and traditional managed herds, respectively. Individual calf and herd-level information was collected using a structured questionnaire and feacal samples were screened for Cryptosporidium spp oocysts using the modified Ziehl-Neelsen method. Overall, 35% of the calves in the study were shedding Cryptosporidium spp oocysts, with at least one positive calf detected in 54.5% of herds. Independent risk factors for cryptosporidiosis were: age ≥1 to ≤2 months and level of cleanness of calf house floor categorized as dirty (P < .05). Similarly an increases risk of Cryptosporidium spp infection was found in calves from smallholder dairy units compared to traditional herds (P < .05). The finding highlights that Cryptosporidium spp is prevalent among calves in the area under study. The high prevalence of cryptosporidiosis detected in this study suggests that it may have a significant impact on livestock industry and that the close interaction between cattle and human may play a role in zoonotic transmission to humans

The Costs, Benefits and Human Behaviours for Antimicrobial Use in Small Commercial Broiler Chicken Systems in Indonesia

There are growing concerns over the threat to human health from the unregulated use of antimicrobials in livestock. Broiler production is of great economic and social importance in Indonesia. This study used a structured questionnaire approach to explore the human behaviours and economic drivers associated with antimicrobial use in small commercial broiler systems in Indonesia (n = 509). The study showed that antimicrobial use was high with farmers easily able to access antimicrobials through local animal medicine, however, it was difficult for farmers to access veterinary advice on responsible antimicrobial use. The most significant finding was that the relative cost of antimicrobials was low, and farmers observed improvements in productivity rates from routine antimicrobial administration. However, farmers seldom kept detailed records on farm productivity or economic costs; this is a hurdle to undertaking a more detailed economic analysis of antimicrobial use. There is a need for further research on the cost-effectiveness of alternative methods of preventing disease and ensuring that feasible alternatives are easily available. Farm-level economics and securing the food supply chain need to be central to any future policy interventions to reduce antimicrobial use in broiler systems in Indonesia and this observation is relevant at a regional and global level.</jats:p

Designing programs for eliminating canine rabies from islands: Bali, Indonesia as a case study

&lt;p&gt;Background: Canine rabies is one of the most important and feared zoonotic diseases in the world. In some regions rabies elimination is being successfully coordinated, whereas in others rabies is endemic and continues to spread to uninfected areas. As epidemics emerge, both accepted and contentious control methods are used, as questions remain over the most effective strategy to eliminate rabies. The Indonesian island of Bali was rabies-free until 2008 when an epidemic in domestic dogs began, resulting in the deaths of over 100 people. Here we analyze data from the epidemic and compare the effectiveness of control methods at eliminating rabies.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Methodology/Principal Findings: Using data from Bali, we estimated the basic reproductive number, R0, of rabies in dogs, to be ~1·2, almost identical to that obtained in ten–fold less dense dog populations and suggesting rabies will not be effectively controlled by reducing dog density. We then developed a model to compare options for mass dog vaccination. Comprehensive high coverage was the single most important factor for achieving elimination, with omission of even small areas (&#60;0.5% of the dog population) jeopardizing success. Parameterizing the model with data from the 2010 and 2011 vaccination campaigns, we show that a comprehensive high coverage campaign in 2012 would likely result in elimination, saving ~550 human lives and ~$15 million in prophylaxis costs over the next ten years.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;Conclusions/Significance: The elimination of rabies from Bali will not be achieved through achievable reductions in dog density. To ensure elimination, concerted high coverage, repeated, mass dog vaccination campaigns are necessary and the cooperation of all regions of the island is critical. Momentum is building towards development of a strategy for the global elimination of canine rabies, and this study offers valuable new insights about the dynamics and control of this disease, with immediate practical relevance.&lt;/p&gt

Characterizing Antimicrobial Use in the Livestock Sector in Three South East Asian Countries (Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam)

A framework was developed to characterize the antimicrobial use/antimicrobial resistance complex in livestock systems in Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand. Farm profitability, disease prevention, and mortality rate reduction were identified as drivers toward antimicrobial use in livestock systems. It revealed that antimicrobial use was high in all sectors studied, and that routine preventative use was of particular importance to broiler production systems. Misleading feed labeling was identified as a hurdle to the collection of accurate antimicrobial use data, with farmers being unaware of the antimicrobials contained in some commercial feed. Economic analysis found that the cost of antimicrobials was low relative to other farm inputs, and that farm profitability was precariously balanced. High disease and poor prices were identified as potential drivers toward economic loss. The research indicates that antimicrobial use in small-scale poultry production systems improves feed conversion ratios and overall productivity. However, data were limited to quantify adequately these potential gains and their impacts on the food supply. During the study, all countries embraced and implemented policies on better management of antimicrobial use in livestock and surveillance of antimicrobial resistance. Future policies need to consider farm-level economics and livestock food supply issues when developing further antimicrobial use interventions in the region

Epidemiology of leptospirosis and other zoonotic diseases in cattle in Tanzania and their relative risk to public health

A serological and questionnaire study on zoonoses was performed among cattle farms in Tanga, Tanzania. The study revealed that leptospirosis and other zoonoses are common in cattle in Tanga. Herd sero-prevalences were 58% for leptospirosis, 12% for brucellosis. 6% for tuberculosis and 12% for toxoplasmosis. Prevalence was higher in traditional herds than in smallholder herds. The zoonoses were not restricted to rural areas, but also occurred in urban and peri-urban areas, where livestock keeping is expanding.EThOS - Electronic Theses Online ServiceGBUnited Kingdo

Research Article The Use of Rose Bengal Plate Test to Asses Cattle Exposure to Brucella Infection in Traditional and Smallholder Dairy Production Systems of Tanga Region of Tanzania

Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and to identify risk factors for bovine brucellosis seropositivity in traditional and smallholder dairy cattle production systems in the Tanga region of North-eastern Tanzania. The study populations comprised 246 indigenous and 409 crossbred cattle, randomly selected from 105 smallholder dairy and 25 traditional managed herds, respectively. Individual animal and herd-level data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Serum samples were screened for Brucella antibodies using the Rose Bengal Plate Test The overall seroprevalence of Brucella antibodies in the smallholder dairy and traditional managed cattle was 4.1 % and 7.3 % respectively. The corresponding overall herd prevalence was 10.5 % and 20 % respectively. Using multivariate logistic regression analysis, closeness to stock route, access to surface drinking water and location were identified as the major risk factors for individual herd seroprevalence. Older animals (≥6 years) were associated with increased risk of sero-positivity compared to animals of age category of ≤6 years. The results showed that brucellosis is prevalent and widely distributed locally, underscoring the need for further studies including surveillance and institution of preventive and control measures particularly among female young-stock and the general public who are at high risk of contracting brucellosis. 1

Knowledge and attitude towards zoonoses among animal health workers and livestock keepers in Arusha and Tanga, Tanzania

Zoonoses are infections naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans. An exploratory questionnaire-based survey of animal health workers(n=36) and livestock keepers(n=43)was carried out from April 2001 to March 2002 in Tanga and Arusha regions, northern Tanzania, to assess local knowledge, attitudes and public awareness for animal zoonoses. A combination of closed and open-ended questions, focus group discussions and ranking techniques were employed to gather information on perceptions concerning the type of zoonotic diseases prevalent in the study area, level of risk, mode of transmission and methods of preventing disease transmission from animals to humans. The results demonstrated that rabies, tuberculosis and anthrax were considered the three most common zoonotic diseases. Sharing living accommodation with animals, consumption of un-treated livestock products (i.e. milk, meat or eggs) and attending to parturition were perceived as routes of transmission. Knowledge about zoonosis was higher in smallholder dairy (92%; 33/36) than traditional livestock keepers (P<0.05). On the contrary, the perceived risk of contracting a zoonosis was significantly higher in traditional livestock (86%; 6/7) than smallholder dairy keepers (P<0.05). Stratification of the risk of zoonosis by farm location revealed that rural farms (85%; 7/8) were considered significantly at a higher risk when compared to peri or urban located farms (P<0.05). Most of the respondents stated cooking of meat or boiling of milk as a way to prevent transmission. However, there was a significant difference in the perception of the risk posed by contact with potentially infected animals /or animal products with animal health workers having a much higher level of perception compared to livestock keepers. These results suggest that in the Tanga and Arusha, Tanzania, patchy awareness and knowledge of zoonoses, combined with food consumption habits and poor animal husbandry are likely to expose respondents to an increased risk of contracting zoonoses. Public health promotion on education and inter-disciplinary one-health collaboration between vets, public health practitioners and policy makers should result in a more efficient and effective joint approach to the diagnosis and control of zoonoses in Tanzania

Risk factors for H5 avian influenza virus prevalence on urban live bird markets in Jakarta, Indonesia-Evaluation of long-term environmental surveillance data

In the re-emergence of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), live bird markets have been identified to play a critical role. In this repeated cross-sectional study, we combined surveillance data collected monthly on Jakarta's live bird markets over a five-year period, with risk factors related to the structure and management of live bird markets, the trading and slaughtering of birds at these markets, and environmental and demographic conditions in the areas where the markets were located. Over the study period 36.7% (95% CI: 35.1, 38.3) of samples (N = 1315) tested HPAI H5 virus positive. Using General Estimation Equation approaches to account for repeated observations over time, we explored the association between HPAI H5 virus prevalence and potential risk factors. Markets where only live birds and carcasses were sold, but no slaughtering was conducted at or at the vicinity of the markets, had a significantly reduced chance of being positive for H5 virus (OR = 0.2, 95% CI 0.1-0.5). Also, markets, that used display tables for poultry carcasses made from wood, had reduced odds of being H5 virus positive (OR = 0.7, 95% CI 0.5-1.0), while having at least one duck sample included in the pool of samples collected at the market increased the chance of being H5 virus positive (OR = 5.7, 95% CI 3.6-9.2). Markets where parent stock was traded, were more at risk of being H5 virus positive compared to markets where broilers were traded. Finally, the human population density in the district, the average distance between markets and origins of poultry sold at markets and the total rainfall per month were all positively associated with higher H5 virus prevalence. In summary, our results highlight that a combination of factors related to trading and marketing processes and environmental pressures need to be considered to reduce H5 virus infection risk for customers at urban live bird markets. In particular, the relocation of slaughter areas to well-managed separate locations should be considered

Immunogenicity of Oral Rabies Vaccine Strain SPBN GASGAS in Local Dogs in Bali, Indonesia

Dog-mediated rabies is endemic in much of Indonesia, including Bali. Most dogs in Bali are free-roaming and often inaccessible for parenteral vaccination without special effort. Oral rabies vaccination (ORV) is considered a promising alternative to increase vaccination coverage in these dogs. This study assessed immunogenicity in local dogs in Bali after oral administration of the highly attenuated third-generation rabies virus vaccine strain SPBN GASGAS. Dogs received the oral rabies vaccine either directly or by being offered an egg-flavored bait that contained a vaccine-loaded sachet. The humoral immune response was then compared with two further groups of dogs: a group that received a parenteral inactivated rabies vaccine and an unvaccinated control group. The animals were bled prior to vaccination and between 27 and 32 days after vaccination. The blood samples were tested for the presence of virus-binding antibodies using ELISA. The seroconversion rate in the three groups of vaccinated dogs did not differ significantly: bait: 88.9%; direct-oral: 94.1%; parenteral: 90.9%; control: 0%. There was no significant quantitative difference in the level of antibodies between orally and parenterally vaccinated dogs. This study confirms that SPBN GASGAS is capable of inducing an adequate immune response comparable to a parenteral vaccine under field conditions in Indonesia

Model description.

<p>(A) Secondary cases are drawn from the (i) offspring distribution, and become infectious at a date drawn from the (ii) generation interval distribution: here four secondary cases are generated by the index case (black dot) which become infectious on day 14, 21, 23, and 35. The occurrence of secondary cases depends on vaccination coverage in the grid cell at the time of transmission. (iii) With probability 1–<i>p</i> each offspring occurs at a location generated from the local dispersal kernel (solid black arrows). (iv) With probability <i>p</i>, each offspring occurs on any randomly chosen grid cell (broken black arrow). It took 2.2 years for rabies to be detected in all nine Regencies (grey band), consistent with <i>p</i> = 0.05–0.09 (black dots are medians with 95% PIs from 100 simulations). See <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002372#pntd-0002372-t001" target="_blank">Table 1</a> for parameterization of distributions. (v) Human rabies deaths versus confirmed dog rabies cases, showing the best-fit relationship (black line, see <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002372#s3" target="_blank">Results</a> for equation) and 95% confidence intervals (grey area). (B) 95% PI envelope of simulated cases (grey area) with annual campaigns of the ‘random’ mass vaccination strategy (green line, <a href="http://www.plosntds.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002372#pntd-0002372-t002" target="_blank">Table 2</a>), which is rolled out when cumulative cases reach 7,000 and from which point the time to eradication is measured.</p